A Review of Analytical Methods for Clopidogrel Bisulfate

Aakanksha C. Kumbhar, Prerana B. Gherade, Sandhyarani S. Sonkamble, Kumudini R. Pawar

Department of Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance, Abhinav Education Society’s College of Pharmacy, Narhe, Pune – 41, Maharashtra, India.

*Corresponding Author E-mail: kumudiniphd30@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:

The main purpose of the frequently prescribed antiplatelet drug clopidogrel bisulfate is to protect patients with atherosclerosis and acute coronary syndromes from cardiovascular events. Clopidogrel bisulfate analysis must be accurate and trustworthy for clinical research and pharmaceutical quality control. The study thoroughly examines analytical methods, including spectroscopic, bioanalytical, and chromatographic approaches. Each method's benefits, drawbacks, and applications are discussed, offering helpful insights into how well they work for various analytical goals. Due to their excellent sensitivity, selectivity, and precision, chromatographic methods like high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) have been the most widely used technique for clopidogrel bisulfate analysis. The creation of various stationary phases and mobile phases has improved separation efficiency and increased the precision of drug quantification. Clopidogrel bisulfate has been extensively determined in pharmaceutical formulations and biological samples using spectroscopic techniques, such as UV-visible spectrophotometry, infrared spectroscopy (IR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. These techniques provide quick analysis and straightforward sample preparation steps. Bioanalytical plans, including substance-causing chemicals to split into simpler substances-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and liquid chromatography-bulk spectrometry (LC-MS), are necessary for the measurement of clopidogrel bisulfate in organic casts, such as red body fluid or excretion, in pharmacokinetic and bioequivalence studies. The variety of examining methods debated in this place will aid in selecting the ultimate appropriate method for specific examining necessities, eventually providing the safe and productive use of clopidogrel bisulfate in dispassionate practice.

KEYWORDS: Clopidogrel Bisulfate, UV-Visible Spectroscopy, RP-HPLC, HPTLC, Bio Analytical Methods, LC-MS.

INTRODUCTION:

Clopidogrel Bisulfate is a thienopyridine class inhibitor of P2Y12 ADP platelet receptor. Chemically it is methyl (+) -(S)-α-(2-chlorophenyl)-6,7-dihydrothieno[3,2-c] pyridine-5 (4H)-acetate sulfate (1:1). The empirical formula of clopidogrel bisulfate is C₁₆H₁₆CINO₂S•H₂SO₄ and its molecular weight is 419.9.¹

Clopidogrel bisulfate (Plavix) is an anti-platelet drug, that is, a drug that inhibits the ability of platelets to clump together as part of a blood clot. Clopidogrel prevents blood clots by irreversibly binding to the P2Y12 receptor on platelets, preventing adenosine diphosphate (ADP) from activating platelets.² It belongs to a class of drugs called P2Y12 inhibitors. Clopidogrel is used for preventing strokes, heart attacks, and death in individuals who have had a previous stroke, unstable angina, and peripheral arterial disease (PDA).³

Figure 1: Chemical structure of Clopidogrel bisulfate.

Mechanism of action:

Clopidogrel is metabolized to its active form by carboxylesterase 1. The active form is a platelet inhibitor that irreversibly binds to P2Y12 ADP receptors on platelets. This binding prevents ADP binding to P2Y12 receptors, activation of the glycoprotein GPIIb/IIIa complex, and platelet aggregation.⁴

Analytical techniques in pharmaceutical analysis:

Numerous analytical techniques, including UV/Visible Spectrophotometry (UV)^5,6, High-Performance liquidchromatography (HPLC)⁷, Ultra high-performance liquid chromatography(UPLC)⁸, High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC)^9,10,11,12, Bio-analytical studies¹³, Mass spectrometry (MS)^14,15,16, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)¹⁷, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy^18,19,20  were identified in the literature for the estimation of Clopidogrel Bisulfate in bulk and pharmaceutical formulations as well as in biological samples.²¹

Summary of analytical methods for Clopidogrel Bisulfate:

Table 1: Analytical method development and validation of Clopidogrel bisulfate by UV-visible spectrophotometric.

Sr. No.	Drug/Drugs	Method	Description	Ref. No.
1	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Aspirin	First order derivative spectroscopy	Wavelength: Aspirin: 232.5nm, Clopidogrel: 211.3nm Mobile phase: Methanol and 0.1 N HCl Linearity range:5.0 μg/ml to 25.0 μg/ml Correlation coefficient: r^2<1	22
2	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Rosuvastatin calcium	First order derivative spectroscopy	Wavelength: Rosuvastatin calcium: 243nm, Clopidogrel: 219nm Mobile phase: Methanol Linearity range:2- 10 ug/ml Correlation coefficient: 0.9995	23
3	Clopidogrel bisulfate, Atorvastatin and Aspirin	First derivative spectrophotometry and multicomponent spectrophotometry for simultaneous estimation in capsule dosage formed	Wavelengths: First derivative; Atorvastatin: 276nm, Clopidogrel: 226nm, Aspirin: 222nm Multicomponent Amplitudes: Atorvastatin: 247nm, Clopidogrel: 220nm, Aspirin: 235nm Mobile phase: Methanol Correlation coefficient: 0.998	24
4	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Aspirin	Spectrophotometric simultaneous determination in combined tablet dosage form by ratio derivative and AUC method	Wavelengths: Second derivative: Aspirin: 218.11nm, Clopidogrel: 247.002nm Area Under Curved: Clopidogrel: 215.66-218.78 nm, Aspirin: 235.15-238.27nm Mobile phase: Methanol	25
5	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Rosuvastatin calcium	Simultaneous estimation	Wavelength: Rosuvastatin calcium: 243nm, Clopidogrel: 220nm Mobile phase: Methanol Linearity range: Rosuvastatin: 2- 10 μgmL-1, Clopidogrel: 6-14 μgmL-1 Correlation coefficient: 0.998	26
6	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Metoprolol	Simultaneous estimation	Wavelength: Metoprolol: 220nm, Clopidogrel: 271nm Mobile phase: Dis. Water Linearity range: Metoprolol: 4-30 μgmL-1, Clopidogrel: 5-90 μgmL-1 Correlation coefficient: 0.997	27
7	Clopidogrel bisulfate, Aspirin	Second derivative spectrophotometric method	Wavelengths: Second derivative: Aspirin: 216nm, Clopidogrel: 254nm Linearity range:5-30 ug/ml Mobile phase: Methanol	28
8	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Aspirin	First derivative spectroscopy method	Wavelengths: Aspirin: 271.5nm, Clopidogrel: 242.4nm Mobile phase: Methanol Correlation coefficient: 0.999	29
9	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Irbesartan	Simultaneous estimation	Wavelength: Irbesartan: 250nm, Clopidogrel: 220nm Mobile phase: Dis. Water Linearity range: 10-50ug/ml Correlation coefficient: 0.996-0.998	30
10	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Amlodipine besylat	Simultaneous estimation in bulk tablet dosage form	Wavelength: Simultaneous estimation method; Amlodipine besylate: 360nm, Clopidogrel bisulfate: 270nm Mobile phase: Dis. Water Linearity range: 5-54ug/ml Correlation coefficient: 0.999	31
11	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Spectrophotometric Method	Wavelength: Clopidogrel: 407nm Mobile phase: Dis. Water and ethyl alcohol Correlation coefficient: 0.996	32
12	Rosuvastatin calcium and Clopidogrel bisulfate	Simultaneous estimation in bulk and formulation	Wavelength: Simultaneous equation method: Rosuvastatin calcium: 243nm, Clopidogrel: 230nm Absorbance ratio method:Iso-absorptive point: 227 nm, Absorption maxima of Rosuvastatin: 243nm Mobile phase: Dis water and urea 2M. Linearity range: Rosuvastatin: 2- 10 μgmL-1 Clopidogrel: 5-25 μgmL-1	33
13	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Rivaroxaban	Simultaneous estimation in their binary determination	Wavelength: First derivative spectrophotometric method Rivaroxaban: 289nm, Clopidogrel: 249.5 nm Ratio derivative spectrophotometric method: Rivaroxaban: 256nm, Clopidogrel: 214.5nm Mobile phase: Methanol Linearity range: Rosuvastatin: 2-20 μgmL-1 Clopidogrel: 5-60 μgmL-1 Correlation coefficient: 0.999	34
14	Clopidogrel bisulfate, Rosuvastatin and Aspirin	Simultaneous Estimation in pharmaceutical dosage formed	Wavelength: Rosuvastatin: 24.56nm, Aspirin: 276.44nm, Clopidogrel: 223.38nm Mobile phase: Methanol Correlation coefficient: 0.9998 Linearity range: Rosuvastatin: 1-5 ug/ml, Aspirin: 7.5 37.5 ug/ml, Clopidogrel: 7.5-37.5 ug/ml	35
15	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Spectrophotometric determination in bulk dosage formed	Wavelength: Clopidogrel: 203nm Mobile phase: Methanol Linearity range:1-2.6 ug/ml Correlation coefficient: 0.9929	36

Table 2: Analytical method development and validation of Clopidogrel bisulfate by RP-HPLC and UPLC.

Sr. No.	Drug/Drugs	Method	Description	Ref. No.
1	Clopidogrel bisulfate	RP-HPLC method development in tablet dosage form	Wavelength: 240nm [UV detector] Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Methanol: Phosphate buffer (0.1 pH) Ratio: 80:10:10 (v/v/v) Flow rate: 0.9 ml/min	37
2	Clopidogrel bisulfate, Its Carboxylic Acid Metabolite, and Atorvastatin	Simultaneous quantification in human plasma: application to a pharmacokinetic study	Wavelength: 220nm [PDA detector] Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Methanol: Phosphoric acid buffer (2.6 pH) Flow rate: 1 ml/min	38
3	Aspirin, Rosuvastatin and Clopidogrel	Stability indicating RP-HPLC methodin bulk and pharmaceutical dosage form.	Wavelength: 237nm [UV-visible detector] Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Water (2.51 pH) with 0.1 % (v/v) orthophosphoric acid Ratio: 50:50 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min	39
4	Clopidogrel Bisulfate	Stability-indicating method and accelerated stability studies for osmotic and pulsatile tablet formulations of	Wavelength: 222nm [UV-visible detector] Mobile phase: Acetonitrile:0.1% formic acid Ratio: 60:40 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time: 5.9 min	40
5	Clopidogrel, Aspirin and Atorvastatin	Liquid chromatographic method for simultaneous quantitation in rat plasma: application to the pharmacokinetic study	Wavelength: 232nm [UV-visible detector] Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Phosphate buffer (pH 3) Ratio: Gradient ratio Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time: 5.9 min	41
6	Clopidogrel Bisulfate	RP-HPLC	Wavelength: 220nm [SPD 20A UV-visible detector] Mobile phase: Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate buffer (pH 4): Acetonitrile Ratio: 32:68 Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time: 3.847 min	42
7	Clopidogrel Bisulfate and Aspirin	Stability indicating RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 220nm [UV-visible detector] Mobile phase: Buffer: Acetonitrile Ratio: 650:350 v/v Flow rate: 1.3 ml/min Retention time:  Aspirin: 4.299 min, Clopidogrel: 12.706 min	43
8	Aspirin, Clopidogrel and Rosuvastatin	Simultaneous estimation in pharmaceutical dosage form	Wavelength: 242nm [UV-visible detector] Mobile phase:KH2PO4 buffer (pH-6.0): Acetonitrile Ratio: 60:40 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time:  Aspirin: 3.103 min, Clopidogrel: 4.277 min, Rosuvastatin: 5.707 min	44
9	Aspirin, Clopidogrel bisulfate and Rosuvastatin Calcium	RP-HPLC in fixed-dose combination capsules	Wavelength: 230nm Mobile phase: Phosphate buffer (pH 3): Acetonitrile Flow rate: 1.2 ml/min Retention time:  Aspirin: 3.2 min, Clopidogrel: 12.8 min, Rosuvastatin: 4.7min	45
10	Acetylsalicylic Acid and Clopidogrel bisulfate	in vitro dissolution study: RP-HPLC method for simultaneous analysis	Wavelength: 240nm [UV detection] Mobile phase: Phosphate buffer (pH 3): Acetonitrile: Methanol	46
11	Acetylsalicylic Acid and Clopidogrel bisulfate	Development and validation of an LC method for combined oral dosage form	Wavelength: 220nm Mobile phase: Gradient mixture: A: 5:95 v/v mix of Methanol and 1 g/L solution of Sodium octane sulfonate monohydrate (pH 2.5) B: 5:95 v/v mixture of Methanol and Acetonitrile	47
12	Clopidogrel, Aspirin and Omeprazole	Stability-indicating UFLC method for uncoupling and estimation of impurities in their tablet dosage form using PDA detection	Wavelength: 237 nm: Aspirin and its impurities and for the impurity C of Clopidogrel; 254 nm: Clopidogrel and its impurities except for impurity C; 280 nm for Omeprazole and its impurities Mobile phase:0.01 M Phosphate buffer (pH 2): Acetonitrile Flow rate: 1.2 ml/min	48
13	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Aspirin	RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 240nm Mobile phase: Acetonitrile:50 mM Potassium dihydrogen phosphate buffer: Methanol (pH 3) Ratio: 50:30:20 v/v Flow rate: 1.5 ml/min Retention time: Clopidogrel bisulfate: 7.47min, Aspirin: 2.2 min Linearity: Clopidogrel bisulfate: 1.5-7.5, Aspirin: 3.5-15.0 μg/ml	49
14	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Validation of assay for some tablet forms by RP-HPLC liquid chromatography	Wavelength: 225 nm Mobile phase: Phosphate buffer (pH 2.85): Acetonitrile Ratio: 35:65 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time: 7.48 min Linearity: 10-60 ug/ml	50
15	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Stability indicating method development and validation	Wavelength: 225 nm Mobile phase: Water (pH 3.0):  Methanol Ratio: 20:80 v/v Flow rate: 1.0 ml/min Retention time: 4.388 min Linearity: 45-120ug/ml	51
16	Clopidogrel and Aspirin	Simultaneous determination by RP-HPLC from bulk material and dosage formulations using multivariate calibration technique	Wavelength: 225, 230, 235, 240, and 245nm Mobile phase: Methanol: Water (pH 3.4) Ratio: 80:20 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min	52
17	Clopidogrel bisulfate	RP-HPLC assay	Wavelength: 247nm Mobile phase:50 mM Potassium di-hydrogen phosphate (pH 3.0): Acetonitrile Ratio: 75:25 v/v Flow rate: 1.0 ml/min Retention time: 6.5 min	53
18	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Separation and determination of process-related impurities by RP-HPLC	Wavelength: 220nm Mobile phase: Potassium dihydrogen phosphate buffer (pH 3.5): Acetonitrile Ratio: 78:22 v/v Flow rate: 1.0 ml/min	54
19	Clopidogrel bisulfate	RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 222 nm (UV detection) Mobile phase: Methanol: Water Ratio: 70:30 v/v Flow rate: 1.0 ml/min Retention time: 3.45 min	55
20	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Rivaroxaban	Simultaneous estimation RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 220nm Mobile phase: Buffer (0.05M KH2PO4 of pH 4.0): Methanol Ratio: 30:70 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time:  Rivaroxaban: 4.04 min, Clopidogrel: 2.39 min	56
21	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Rosuvastatin Calcium	Simultaneous estimation in pharmaceutical dosage form by RP-HPLC	Wavelength: 240 nm Mobile phase: Buffer (pH 3.0):  Methanol Ratio: 20:80 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time:  Rosuvastatin calcium: 2.844 min, Clopidogrel:  4.388 min Linearity: Rosuvastatin calcium: 6-16 µg/ml, Clopidogrel:  45-120 µg/m	57
22	Aspirin and Clopidogrel bisulfate	Ion-pairing RP-HPLC method for simultaneous determination in tablet and capsule dosage forms	Wavelength: 240nm Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: 0.01M TBAHS Ratio:50:50% v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time:  Aspirin: 3.167 min, Clopidogrel:  5.758 min Linearity: Aspirin: 1-250 μg/ml, Clopidogrel:  0.5-125 μg/ml	58
23	Clopidogrel and Rosuvastatin	Stability indicating liquid chromatographic method development and validation in bulk and tablet dosage formed	Wavelength: 270nm (UV detector) Mobile phase: Methanol and Water Ratio: 50:50 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time:  Rosuvastatin calcium: 5 min, Clopidogrel:  3.3 min Linearity: Rosuvastatin: 10-50 μg/ml, Clopidogrel:  5-25 μg/ml	59
24	Clopidogrel and Aspirin	Simultaneous estimation RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 237nm (Diode array detector) Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: 0.1% (v/v) Orthophosphoric acid Ratio: 40:60 v/v Flow rate: 1.5 ml/min Retention time:  Aspirin: 2.78 min, Clopidogrel:  4.99min	60
25	Clopidogrel and Aspirin	RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 240nm (Diode array detector) Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Methanol: 20 mM phosphate buffer (pH 3) Ratio: 50:7:43 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time:  Aspirin: 2.40 min, Clopidogrel:  9.72min, Linearity: 10-50 µg/ml	61
26	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Stability-indicating liquid chromatography in tablets: Application to content uniformity testing	Wavelength: 235nm (UV detector) Mobile phase:0.01M Na2HPO4 (pH 4): Acetonitrile Ratio: 80:20 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time: Clopidogrel:  6.84 min, Linearity: 0.2-3.5 µg/ml	62
27	Clopidogrel bisulfate	RP-HPLC in bulk and pharmaceutical dosage form	Wavelength: 224nm (UV detector) Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Phosphate buffer (pH: 3.0) Ratio: 60:40 % v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min	63
28	Clopidogrel bisulfate	RP-HPLC for pharmaceutical dosage formed	Wavelength: 220nm (UV detector) Mobile phase: Buffer of ammonium acetate:  Acetonitrile Flow rate: 1 ml/min Linearity range: 50-150 ug/ml	64
29	S(-) Metoprolol Succinate & Clopidogrel bisulfate	Stability indicating RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 220nm (PDA detector) Mobile phase: Methanol: Acetonitrile: Buffer Ratio: 15:40:45 v/v Flow rate: 1.5 ml/min	65
30	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Stability indicating RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 225nm (UV detector) Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Tetra butyl Ammonium hydrogen sulfate buffer Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time: 4.59 min	66
31	Clopidogrel bisulfate	RP-HPLC for pharmaceutical dosage formed	Wavelength: 220nm (UV detector) Mobile phase: Methanol: water (pH 3.5) Ratio: 95:5 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min	67
32	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Novel stability indicating RP-HPLC method bulk, and its dosage formed	Wavelength: 240nm (UV detector) Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: OPA (Ortho phosphoric acid) buffer Ratio: 50:50v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time: 2.7 min	68
33	Clopidogrel and Aspirin	RP-HPLC method	Wavelength: 240nm (UV 3000 detector) Mobile phase: Methanol: Water (pH 4) Ratio: 90:10 v/v Flow rate: 1 ml/min Retention time:  Aspirin: 4.474 min, Clopidogrel:  5.883 min	69

Table 3: Analytical method development and validation of Clopidogrel bisulfate by HPTLC

Sr. No.	Drug/Drugs	Method	Description	Ref. No.
1	Clopidogrel bisulfate	HPTLC method	Wavelength: 254nm Solvent: Hexane: Methanol: Chloroform: Ammonia Ratio: 16:2:1.5:0.5 v/v/v/v Linearity: 1-10 ug/ml	70
2	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Stability indicating HPTLC determination bulk drug and in pharmaceutical dosage form	Wavelength: 230nm Solvent: Carbon tetrachloride: Chloroform: Acetone Ratio: 6:4:0.15 v/v/v	71
3	Clopidogrel bisulfate and Acetylsalicylic Acid	Simultaneous estimation in powder and tablet form by HPTLC	Wavelength: 235nm (UV detection Solvent: Ethyl acetate: Methanol: Toluene: Glacial Acetic acid Ratio: 5:1:4:0.1 v/v/v	72
4	Clopidogrel bisulfate	HPTLC method	Wavelength: 230nm Solvent: Carbon tetrachloride: Ethyl acetate: Ammonia Ratio: 5:0.3:0.2 v/v/v Linearity: 300-1500 ng	73

Table 4: Analytical method development and validation of Clopidogrel bisulfate by LC-MS, GC-MS

Sr. No.	Drug/Drugs	Method	Description	Ref. No.
1	Clopidogrel bisulfate	A novel GC-MS method for bulk and pharmaceutical dosage formed	Carrier gas: Helium Flow rate: 1.27ml/min Retention time: 17.2min Electron impact (EI) ionization at 70 eV	74
2	Clopidogrel bisulfate	HPLC–MS/MS method in human plasma	Solvent: 50% DMSO Mobile phase: 0.04% Formic acid: 3 mmol/L Ammonium acetate in Acetonitrile/water (65:35 v/v) Electrospray ionization	75
3	Clopidogrel bisulfate	LC-MS/MS method for the enantioseparation and determination in beagle plasma and its application to a stereoselective pharmacokinetic study	Mobile phase: Acetonitrile: Ammonium acetate (10 mM, pH 4.5) Ratio: 22:78v/v Flow rate: 0.3 mL/min. Linearity: 1-800 ng/mL Electrospray ionization	76
4	Clopidogrel bisulfate	Clopidogrel carboxylic acid in human plasma using Clopidogrel-D4-carboxylic acid as internal standard Clopidogrel carboxylic acid in human plasma using Clopidogrel-D4-carboxylic acid as internal standard Clopidogrel carboxylic acid in human plasma using Clopidogrel-D4-carboxylic acid as internal standard LC-MS/MS method in human plasma	Mobile phase: diethyl ether – n-hexane (80:20, v/v) Methanol, de-ionized water and formic acid as a mobile phase at flow rate of 0.5 ml/minute Methanol, de-ionized water and formic acid as a mobile phase at flow rate of 0.5 ml/minute Mobile phase: Methanol: De-ionized water: Formic acid Flow rate: 0.5 ml/min Tandem mass spectrometry	77
5	Clopidogrel bisulfate	An LCMS-compatible stability indicating HPLC assay method	Mobile phase: 0.1 % Trifluoroacetic acid: Acetonitrile Degradation studies: Acidic (0.5 N HCl), Basic (0.1 N sodium hydroxide), Neutral (Water: Acetonitrile mixture 1:1), Oxidative (6 % v/v hydrogen peroxide), Thermal (105 °C) and Photolytic (UV light -254 nm) conditions	78

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, this comprehensive review highlights the diversity and evolution of analytical methods for clopidogrel bisulfate analysis. Researchers and pharmaceutical professionals can choose the most suitable technique based on their specific analytical objectives, considering sensitivity, accuracy, cost, and sample complexity.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this review article.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

We want to extend our heartfelt gratitude to the Principal of Abhinav Education Society’s, College of Pharmacy (B. Pharm) for their invaluable support and guidance throughout the preparation of this review article.

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Received on 20.01.2024      Revised on 12.04.2024

Accepted on 18.06.2024   Published on 10.12.2024

Available online on December 30, 2024

Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis. 2024; 14(4):266-274.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5675.2024.00048

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